Anglo-Saxon Religious Poetry

Anglo-Saxon Religious Poetry The influence of Christianity came to England from Ireland with the arrival of St. Augustine’mission. The ancient vernacular poetry unredeemed in its worldliness and paganism was sanctified by the Christianization of England. In consequence there was a marked change in the content and emotion of English poetry while leaving it form and general technique unaltered. Instead of seeking themes common to old-Germanic the Christianized Anglo-Saxons adopted a new world of Latin Christianity along with themes and attitudes common to entire Christian world.This enabled the Anglo-Saxon poets to work on Biblical stories, associating them with Hebrew imagination. The special class of poetry which is called Christian poetry and this religious poetry flourished in about the 8th century in North England. Alliterative verse came to the aid of clerkly Latin to give expression of the faith of the Laity and make it popular. The subject of the poet’s song is no w the story of Christ and the deeds of saintly heroes. Caedmon The English poet who took the first attempt to write poems on Christian themes was Caedmon.What scholars know of Caedmon's life comes from Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. He is known best during the time fl. 658-680 AD. , and Bede tells us that he was an illiterate herdsman to a monastery of Whitby who one night in a dream learned how to sing beautiful Christian verses praising God's name. Following his dream, Caedmon became the foremost Christian poets. Earlier he had so little gift of song that he used to leave the feast when he found the harp approaching him he used to leave the feast.One night as he lay asleep in the stable a mysterious being appeared to him in his dreams and commanded him to sing. At his bidding Caedmon at once sang in praise of the Lord, the Creator, verses which he had never heard before. When he awoke he remembered these verses and made others like them. Thus the unlettered C aedmon was miraculously transformed into the first religious poet of England. Caedmon is remembered today for his poetic paraphrases of The Bible.He paraphrased in verse the book of Geneis, Exodus, Daniel and Judith. He is supposed to have sung about  creation of the world, the origin of man, his reign, of exodus, the incarnation, the crucifixion, the resurrection of Christ, the ascension of Christ into heaven, the advent of the Holy Ghost and the teaching of the apostles. He also sang of future judgement, the horrors of hell and the joys of heaven. Research and scholarship however, no longer admit all the poems attributed to Caedmon by Bede to be directly his work excepting the nine-lined poem quoted by Bede in his account of Caedmon’s first inspiration. Genesis A and B The most interesting of the poems in the Junius Manuscript is Genesis.Genesis A of 3000 lines is an account of Satan’s rebellion against God and his fall with the angels into Hell, narrating the subs tance of the first 22 chapters of the Biblical book of Genesis. The poem contains an interpolated passage of 600 lines strikingly different in language and style from the main body of the poem. This has been named Genesis B, a rudimentary Paradise Lost, describing the temptation of Adam and Eve, their Fall and Satan’s rebellion Exodus It relates to the escape of the Israelites and the destruction of the Egyptians in the Red Sea.It is boldly and vigorously written and has an older Epic note. It is written more in the convention of heroic poetry rather than scriptural lore. Exodus brings a traditional â€Å"heroic style† to its biblical subject-matter. Moses is treated as a general, and military imagery pervades the battle scenes. The destruction of the Egyptians in the Red Sea is narrated in much the same way as a formulaic battle scene from other Old English poems Daniel Daniel, as it is preserved, is 764 lines long. There have been numerous arguments that there was or iginally more to this poem than survives today.It is a paraphrase of the first five chapters of the Biblical book of Daniel. The poet uses his materials for homiletic purposes and tries to inculcate such Christian virtue. The primary focus of the Old English author was that of The Three Youths, Daniel and their encounters with the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II. Prosaic in tone, it also bears an interpolatory passage relating to the poem of Azariah. Judith The finest of the poem attributed to Caedmon is Judith of which a fragment of 350 lines, survive. It is a perfect poem full of action and passion.The Old English poem â€Å"Judith† describes the beheading of Assyrian general Holofernes by Israelite Judith of Bethulia. It is found in the same manuscript as the heroic poem Beowulf, the Nowell Codex, dated ca. 975-1025. The Old English poem is one of many retellings of the Holofernes-Judith tale as it was found in the Book of Judith, still present in the Catholic and Orthod ox Christian Bibles. What is certain about the origin of the poem is that it stems from the Book of Judith. After the Reformation, the Book of Judith was removed from the Protestant Bible.However, it is still present in the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles. Similar to Beowulf, Judith conveys a moral tale of heroic triumph over monstrous beings. Both moral and political, the poem tells of a brave woman’s efforts to save and protect her people. Judith is depicted as an exemplar woman, grounded by ideal morale, probity, courage, and religious conviction. Judith's character is rendered blameless and virtuous, and her beauty is praised persistently throughout the poem.Cynaewulf Beside Caedmon, the other most important Old-English religious poet is Cynaewulf. Cynewulf lived roughly c.770-840 AD, yet very little is known about his life. The only information scholars have on Cynewulf's life is what they can discover from his poetry. Two of Cynewulf's signed poems were disco vered in the Vercelli Book, which includes Cynewulf's holy cross poem â€Å"Elene† as well as Dream of the Rood. Where many scholars will argue that all of the poems in the Vercelli are in fact Cynewulf's, the noted German scholar Franz Dietrich demonstrates that the similarities between Cynewulf's â€Å"Elene† and The Dream of the Rood reveals that the two must have been authored by the same individual.The four poems attributed to him trough his runic signatures are Christ. Juliana, Elene and The Fate of the Apostles. Unsigned poems attributed to him or his school are Andreas, St. Guthlac, The Phoenix, The Dream of the Rood. The four poems, like a substantial portion of Anglo-Saxon poetry, are sculpted in alliterative verse. All four poems draw upon Latin sources such as homilies and hagiographies (the lives of saints) for their content, and this is to be particularly contrasted to other Old English poems, e. g.Genesis, Exodus, and Daniel, which are drawn directly fro m the Bible as opposed to secondary accounts. Christ Of all his works the most important and popular poem is Christ, a fragmentary didactic poem in three parts – the first celebrating the Nativity, the second Ascension and the third Doomsday, narrating the torments of the wicked and the joys of the redeemed. Andreas and Guthlac These are poems related to lives of Saints. The first narrates the story of the adventures and sufferings and success of St. Andreas in his travels related to missionary work. Juliana and EleneThese are legendary stories of St. Juliana and the discovery of the True Cross by the mother of Emperor Constantine, St. Helena. They are poems with little artistic merit except for their adventurous element and the rareness in Anglo-Saxon poetry of being dedicated to women. In terms of length, Elene is by far the longest poem of Cynewulf’s corpus at 1,321 lines. It is followed by Juliana, at 731 lines, Christ II, at 427 lines, and The Fates of the Apostle s, at a brisk 122 lines. Three of the poems are â€Å"martyrolical,† in that the central character(s) in each die/suffer for their religious values.In Elene, Saint Helena endures her quest to find the Holy Cross and spread Christianity; in Juliana, the title character dies after she refuses to marry a pagan man, thus retaining her Christian integrity; in Fates of the Apostles, the speaker creates a song that meditates on the deaths of the apostles which they â€Å"joyously faced. † Elene and Juliana fit in the category of poems that depict the lives of saints. These two poems along with Andreas and Guthlac (parts A and B) constitute the only versified saints' legends in the Old English vernacular.The Ascension (Christ II) is outside the umbrella of the other three works, and is a vehement description of a devotional subject. The exact chronology of the poems is not known. One argument asserts that Elene is likely the last of the poems because the â€Å"autobiographica l† epilogue implies that Cynewulf is old at the time of composition, but this view has been doubted. Nevertheless, it seems that Christ II and Elene represent the cusp of Cynewulf’s career, while Juliana and Fates of the Apostles seem to be created by a less inspired, and perhaps less mature, poet.The Fates of the Apostles It deals with the various Christian Gospels in an Elegiac manner. It is the shortest of Cynewulf’s known canon at 122 lines long. It is a brief martyrology of the Twelve Apostles written in the standard alliterative verse. The Fates recites the key events that subsequently befell each apostle after the Ascension. It is possible that The Fates was composed as a learning aid to the monasteries. Cynewulf speaks in the first-person throughout the poem, and besides explaining the fate of each disciple, he provides â€Å"advice† and â€Å"consolation† to the reader.Cynewulf’s runic signature is scrambled in this poem so that the meaning of the runes become a riddle with no unequivocal meaning. Runic signature All four of Cynewulf's poems contain passages where the letters of the poet’s name are woven into the text using runic symbols that also double as meaningful ideas pertinent to the text. In Juliana and Elene, the interwoven name is spelled in the more recognizable form as Cynewulf, while in Fates and Christ II it is observed without the medial e so the runic acrostic says Cynwulf.The practice of claiming authorship over one’s poems was a break from the tradition of the anonymous poet, where no composition was viewed as being owned by its creator. Cynewulf devised a tradition where authorship would connote ownership of the piece and an originality that would be respected by future generations. Furthermore, by integrating his name, Cynewulf was attempting to retain the structure and form of his poetry that would â€Å"undergo mutations† otherwise. From a different perspective, Cynewu lf’s intent may not have been to claim authorship, but to â€Å"seek the prayers of others for the safety of his soul.†It is contended that Cynewulf wished to be remembered in the prayers of his audience in return for the pleasure they would derive from his poems. In a sense his expectation of a spiritual reward can be contrasted with the material reward that other poets of his time would have expected for their craft. The Phoenix The poem is about a mythical bird which burnt itself to be reborn from its own ashes, symbolic of Christian soul. The Dream of the Rood The poem is set up with the narrator having a dream. In this dream or vision he is speaking to the Cross on which Jesus was crucified.The poem itself is divided up into three separate sections. In section one, the narrator has a vision of the Cross. Initially when the dreamer sees the Cross, he notes how it is covered with gems. He is aware of how wretched he is compared to how glorious the tree is. However, he comes to see that amidst the beautiful stones it is stained with blood In section two, the Cross shares its account of Jesus’ death. The Crucifixion story is told from the perspective of the Cross. It begins with the enemy coming to cut the tree down and carrying it away.The tree learns that it is to be the bearer of a criminal, but instead the Christ comes to be crucified. The Lord and the Cross become one, and they stand together as victors, refusing to fall, taking on insurmountable pain for the sake of mankind. It is not just Christ, but the Cross as well that is pierced with nails. The Rood and Christ are one in the portrayal of the Passion—they are both pierced with nails, mocked and tortured. Then, just like with Christ, the Cross is resurrected, and adorned with gold and silver. It is honored above all trees just as Jesus is honored above all men.The Cross then charges the visionary to share all that he has seen with others. In section three, the author give s his reflections about this vision. The vision ends, and the man is left with his thoughts. He gives praise to God for what he has seen and is filled with hope for eternal life and his desire to once again be near the glorious Cross. It is the finest of religious poems in OE, the finest narrative of the Passion in medieval verse (late 7th century, later modified; preserved in the Vercelli Book). The tree of which the Cross was made relates the story the first English dream-poem Anglo-Saxon Religious Poetry The influence of Christianity came to England from Ireland with the arrival of St. Augustine’mission. The ancient vernacular poetry unredeemed in its worldliness and paganism was sanctified by the Christianization of England. In consequence there was a marked change in the content and emotion of English poetry while leaving it form and general technique unaltered.Instead of seeking themes common to old-Germanic the Christianized Anglo-Saxons adopted a new world of Latin Christianity along with themes and attitudes common to entire Christian world. This enabled the Anglo-Saxon poets to work on Biblical stories, associating them with Hebrew imagination. The special class of poetry which is called Christian poetry and this religious poetry flourished in about the 8th century in North England. Alliterative verse came to the aid of clerkly Latin to give expression of the faith of the Laity and make it popular. The subject of the poet’s song is now the story of Christ and the deeds of saintly heroes.CaedmonThe English poet who took the first attempt to write poems on Christian themes was Caedmon. What scholars know of Caedmon's life comes from Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. He is known best during the time fl. 658-680 AD., and Bede tells us that he was an illiterate herdsman to a monastery of Whitby who one night in a dream learned how to sing beautiful Christian verses praising God's name. Following his dream, Caedmon became the foremost Christian poets. Earlier he had so little gift of song that he used to leave the feast when he found the harp approaching him he used to leave the feast. One night as he lay asleep in the stable a mysterious being appeared to him in his dreams and commanded him to sing.At his bidding Caedmon at once sang in praise of the Lord, the Creator, verses which he had never heard before. When he awoke he remembered these verses and made others like them. Thus the unlettered Caedmon was miraculously transfo rmed into the first religious poet of England. Caedmon is remembered today for his poetic paraphrases of The Bible. He paraphrased in verse the book of Geneis, Exodus, Daniel and Judith. He is supposed to have sung about  creation of the world, the origin of man, his reign, of exodus, the incarnation, the crucifixion, the resurrection of Christ, the ascension of Christ into heaven, the advent of the Holy Ghost and the teaching of the apostles.He also sang of future judgement, the horrors of hell and the joys of heaven. Research and scholarship however, no longer admit all the poems attributed to Caedmon by Bede to be directly his work excepting the nine-lined poem quoted by Bede in his account of Caedmon’s first inspiration.Genesis A and BThe most interesting of the poems in the Junius Manuscript is Genesis. Genesis A of 3000 lines is an account of Satan’s rebellion against God and his fall with the angels into Hell, narrating the substance of the first 22 chapters o f the Biblical book of Genesis. The poem contains an interpolated passage of 600 lines strikingly different in language and style from the main body of the poem. This has been named Genesis B, a rudimentary Paradise Lost, describing the temptation of Adam and Eve, their Fall and Satan’s rebellionExodusIt relates to the escape of the Israelites and the destruction of the Egyptians in the Red Sea. It is boldly and vigorously written and has an older Epic note. It is written more in the convention of heroic poetry rather than scriptural lore. Exodus brings a traditional â€Å"heroic style† to its biblical subject-matter. Moses is treated as a general, and military imagery pervades the battle scenes. The destruction of the Egyptians in the Red Sea is narrated in much the same way as a formulaic battle scene from other Old English poemsDanielDaniel, as it is preserved, is 764 lines long. There have been numerous arguments that there was originally more to this poem than sur vives today.It is a paraphrase of the first five chapters of the Biblical book of Daniel. The poet uses his materials for homiletic purposes and tries to inculcate such Christian virtue. The primary focus of the Old English author was that of The Three Youths, Daniel and their encounters with the Babylonian king  Nebuchadnezzar II. Prosaic in tone, it also bears an interpolatory passage relating to the poem of Azariah.JudithThe finest of the poem attributed to Caedmon is Judith of which a fragment of 350 lines, survive. It is a perfect poem full of action and passion. The Old English poem â€Å"Judith† describes the beheading of Assyrian general Holofernes by Israelite Judith of Bethulia. It is found in the same manuscript as the heroic poem Beowulf, the Nowell Codex, dated ca. 975-1025. The Old English poem is one of many retellings of the Holofernes-Judith tale as it was found in the Book of Judith, still present in the Catholic and Orthodox Christian Bibles.What is certa in about the origin of the poem is that it stems from the Book of Judith. After the Reformation, the Book of Judith was removed from the Protestant Bible. However, it is still present in the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles.Similar to Beowulf, Judith conveys a moral tale of heroic triumph over monstrous beings. Both moral and political, the poem tells of a brave woman’s efforts to save and protect her people. Judith is depicted as an exemplar woman, grounded by ideal morale, probity, courage, and religious conviction. Judith's character is rendered blameless and virtuous, and her beauty is praised persistently throughout the poem.CynaewulfBeside Caedmon, the other most important Old-English religious poet is Cynaewulf. Cynewulf lived roughly c. 770-840 AD, yet very little is known about his life.The only information scholars have on Cynewulf's life is what they can discover from his poetry. Two of Cynewulf's signed poems were discovered in the Vercelli Book, which i ncludes Cynewulf's holy cross poem â€Å"Elene† as well as Dream of the Rood.Where many scholars will argue that all of the poems in the Vercelli are in fact Cynewulf's, the noted German scholar Franz Dietrich demonstrates that the similarities between Cynewulf's â€Å"Elene† and The Dream of the Rood reveals that the two must have been authored by the same individual. The four poems attributed to him trough his runic signatures are Christ. Juliana, Elene and The Fate of the Apostles.Unsigned poems attributed to him or his school are Andreas, St. Guthlac, The Phoenix, The Dream of the Rood. The four poems, like a substantial portion of Anglo-Saxon poetry, are sculpted in alliterative verse. All four poems draw upon Latin sources such as homilies and hagiographies (the lives of saints) for their content, and this is to be particularly contrasted to other Old English poems, e.g. Genesis, Exodus, and Daniel, which are drawn directly from the Bible as opposed to secondary accounts.ChristOf all his works the most important and popular poem is Christ, a fragmentary didactic poem in three parts – the first celebrating the Nativity, the second Ascension and the third Doomsday, narrating the torments of the wicked and the joys of the redeemed.Andreas and GuthlacThese are poems related to lives of Saints. The first narrates the story of the adventures and sufferings and success of St. Andreas in his travels related to missionary work.Juliana and EleneThese are legendary stories of St. Juliana and the discovery of the True Cross by the mother of Emperor Constantine, St. Helena. They are poems with little artistic merit except for their adventurous element and the rareness in Anglo-Saxon poetry of being dedicated to women. In terms of length, Elene is by far the longest poem of Cynewulf’s corpus at 1,321 lines. It is followed by Juliana, at 731 lines, Christ II, at 427 lines, and The Fates of the Apostles, at a brisk 122 lines. Three of the poe ms are â€Å"martyrolical,† in that the central character(s) in each die/suffer for their religious values.In Elene, Saint Helena endures her quest to find the Holy Cross and spread Christianity; in Juliana, the title character dies after she refuses to marry a pagan man, thus retaining her Christian integrity; in Fates of the Apostles, the speaker creates a song that meditates on the deaths of the apostles which they â€Å"joyously faced.† Elene and Juliana fit in the category of poems that depict the lives of saints. These two poems along with Andreas  and Guthlac (parts A and B) constitute the only versified saints' legends in the Old English vernacular.The Ascension (Christ II) is outside the umbrella of the other three works, and is a vehement description of a devotional subject. The exact chronology of the poems is not known. One argument asserts that Elene is likely the last of the poems because the â€Å"autobiographical† epilogue implies that Cynewulf is old at the time of composition, but this view has been doubted. Nevertheless, it seems that Christ II and Elene represent the cusp of Cynewulf’s career, while Juliana and Fates of the Apostles seem to be created by a less inspired, and perhaps less mature, poet. The Fates of the ApostlesIt deals with the various Christian Gospels in an Elegiac manner. It is the shortest of Cynewulf’s known canon at 122 lines long. It is a brief martyrology of the Twelve Apostles written in the standard alliterative verse. The Fates recites the key events that subsequently befell each apostle after the Ascension. It is possible that The Fates was composed as a learning aid to the monasteries. Cynewulf speaks in the first-person throughout the poem, and besides explaining the fate of each disciple, he provides â€Å"advice† and â€Å"consolation† to the reader. Cynewulf’s runic signature is scrambled in this poem so that the meaning of the runes become a riddle w ith no unequivocal meaning.Runic signatureAll four of Cynewulf's poems contain passages where the letters of the poet’s name are woven into the text using runic symbols that also double as meaningful ideas pertinent to the text. In Juliana and Elene, the interwoven name is spelled in the more recognizable form as Cynewulf, while in Fates and Christ II it is observed without the medial e so the runic acrostic says Cynwulf. The practice of claiming authorship over one’s poems was a break from the tradition of the anonymous poet, where no composition was viewed as being owned by its creator. Cynewulf devised a tradition where authorship would connote ownership of the piece and an originality that would be respected by future generations.Furthermore, by integrating his name, Cynewulf was attempting to retain the structure and form of his poetry that would â€Å"undergo mutations† otherwise. From a different perspective, Cynewulf’s intent may not have been to claim authorship, but to â€Å"seek the  prayers of others for the safety of his soul.† It is contended that Cynewulf wished to be remembered in the prayers of his audience in return for the pleasure they would derive from his poems. In a sense his expectation of a spiritual reward can be contrasted with the material reward that other poets of his time would have expected for their craft.The PhoenixThe poem is about a mythical bird which burnt itself to be reborn from its own ashes, symbolic of Christian soul.The Dream of the RoodThe poem is set up with the narrator having a dream. In this dream or vision he is speaking to the Cross on which Jesus was crucified. The poem itself is divided up into three separate sections. In section one, the narrator has a vision of the Cross. Initially when the dreamer sees the Cross, he notes how it is covered with gems. He is aware of how wretched he is compared to how glorious the tree is. However, he comes to see that amidst the beautif ul stones it is stained with blood In section two, the Cross shares its account of Jesus’ death.The Crucifixion story is told from the perspective of the Cross. It begins with the enemy coming to cut the tree down and carrying it away. The tree learns that it is to be the bearer of a criminal, but instead the Christ comes to be crucified. The Lord and the Cross become one, and they stand together as victors, refusing to fall, taking on insurmountable pain for the sake of mankind. It is not just Christ, but the Cross as well that is pierced with nails. The Rood and Christ are one in the portrayal of the Passion—they are both pierced with nails, mocked and tortured. Then, just like with Christ, the Cross is resurrected, and adorned with gold and silver. It is honored above all trees just as Jesus is honored above all men.The Cross then charges the visionary to share all that he has seen with others. In section three, the author gives his reflections about this vision. Th e vision ends, and the man is left with his thoughts. He gives praise to God for what he has seen and is filled with hope for eternal life and his desire to once again be near the glorious Cross. It is the finest of religious poems in OE, the finest narrative of the Passion in medieval verse (late 7th century, later modified; preserved in the Vercelli Book). The tree of which the Cross was made relates the story the first English dream-poem  Christ is portrayed as a young Germanic hero:Long years ago (well yet I remember)   They hewed me down on the edge of the holt, Severed my trunk; strong foemen took me, For a spectacle wrought me, a gallows for rogues. High on their shoulders they bore me to hilltop, Fastened me firmly, an army of foes!   ‘Then I saw the King of all mankind In brave mood hastening to mount upon me. Refuse I dared not, nor bow nor break, Though I felt earth's confines shudder in fear; All foes I might fell, yet still I stood fast.   ‘T hen the young Warrior, God, the All-Wielder, Put off his raiment, steadfast and strong; With lordly mood in the sight of many He mounted the Cross to redeem mankind. When the hero clasped me I trembled in terror,   But I dared not bow me nor bend to earth; I must need stand fast. Upraised as the Rood I held the High King, the Lord of Heaven. I dared not bow! with black nails driven Those sinners pierced me; the prints are clear,   The open wounds. I dared injure none. They mocked us both. I was wet with blood From the Hero's side when He sent forth His spirit. ‘Many a bale I bore on that hill-side Seeing the Lord in agony outstretched.   Black darkness covered with clouds God's body, That radiant splendor. Shadow went forth Wan under heaven; all creation wept Bewailing the King's death. Christ was on the Cross.It appears from a survey of Old English Christian poetry that the poets chiefly aimed at popularizing the holy writ and only occasionally added pious commentaries to the original.

Measure for Measure by William Shakespeare Essay Example

Measure for Measure by William Shakespeare Essay Example Measure for Measure by William Shakespeare Essay Measure for Measure by William Shakespeare Essay I am ever directed by you – Mariana I am directed by you – Isabella. Both these lines are addressed to the Duke. What do they propose about adult females position in this drama? What other grounds can you happen to back up your position? Measure for Measure is a drama written by William Shakespeare in the 17th century which crucially presents the function of adult females. Womans were viewed as pure and were non expected to be promiscuous. but dependent on work forces with few options or picks.Shakespeare’s reading of adult females in Measure for Measure really much reflects society’s sentiment of adult females at the clip. where work forces had more freedom and should be given more respect than adult females. The society at that clip was a patriarchal 1. where a male was a considered a God like figure and finally the leader. and below him was the male monarch and so the Lords. However. although the society gave work forces more rights than adult females. Measure for Measure demonstrates that work forces besides had more duties.This is shown through the state of affairs with Claudio and Juliet. as although they are both every bit to fault for Juliet’s gestation. it is Claudio confronting the decease punishment. The adult females of Measure for Measure are by and large rather low in the ranks of importance and regard ; they are non spoken of with any importance. Juliet is the object of Claudio’s sexual release and Mariana is the long doomed forgotten bride-to-be of Angelo. who was abandoned by him when she lost her dowery in a shipwreck.The lone adult female who sort of interruptions the tendency of the humble adult females is Isabella. who has the bravery to stand up to Angelo for her celibacy. In the first half she is pushed between Angelo and Claudio while she decides what to make and decline to react Angelo’s progresss. so in the 2nd half. she takes her orders from the Duke which shows that on the other manus she is still obedient toward the Duke. following all of his instructions. In Act V. Scene 1. the Duke shows his sentiment of adult females when speaking to Mariana. he says: Why. you are nil so: neither amah. widow nor wife .Harmonizing to the Duke’s point of position. the other adult female who truly is free is Mistress Overdone as she earns her ain money and is able to acquire some freedom ; at least she doesn’t have to remain at place cookery. The chief female character in Measure for Measure is Isabella ; she represents a really pure female character. This is first seen at the start of the drama by the fact that she is developing to go a nun and by the strong Christian values she appears to hold. This is so emphasized subsequently when she is told her brother’s life will be saved if he agrees to kip with Angelo.She refuses this offer. puting her celibacy and her Christian values above her ain life. This illustrates that a woman’s pureness is extremely valued. while a adult female being promiscuous is non accepted. Mariana is another female character in the drama and she is rather different to Isabella. None of these three work forces. Angelo. Claudio or the Duke. seem to believe that her Choice matters- her organic structure is to be bargained for whether for lecherousness. life or love.When the duke asks Mariana to let him a private treatment with Isabella. she replies. I am ever bound to you . as if she is talking to an old friend. And once more. when the duke tells her he respects her. she answers that she knows it and has found it to be true. proposing a long-run relationship. This statement besides shows that she is his capable. The adjectival bound’ means that she is obliged to make as he wishes and besides compelled to make so. She uses the adverb always’ to him which shows that she will ever follow his illustration and will make his will in any status.Her absolute trust is manifested when she agrees to intrust her celibacy as the Friar asks. In the Jacobean society Shakespeare lived in. adult females would hold ever done as they were bid by order of work forces. but particularly if the order was given by a adult male of faith. These words show the absolute conformity that the Duke is able to derive through going a camouflage ( pseudo- ) mendicant. The Duke abuses this spiritual power to derive insight into people’s psyches for his ain terminals.He knows that Angelo wishes Isabella to give up the treasures’ of her organic structure and uses the two adult females to derive more power over Angelo. The same applies to when Isabella says to the Duke. I am directed by you . this statement besides shows how adult females respected work forces and how work forces were above in authorization. As mentioned above. there are no independent adult females in Measure for Measure. this is non unusual. sing the scene and Shakespeare’s ain epoch ; there are cocottes and nuns who are given no opportunity to command their ain lives most of all they seem to hold no pick in any affair.

Rapper Chuck D

Rapper Chuck D of the politically charged group Public Enemy once proclaimed that the Black Man did not land on Plymouth Rock as the white pilgrims are believed to have done, but instead Plymouth Rock landed on the Black Man. It had taken nearly four hundred years for the Black Man to climb from beneath this proverbial rock. Leading the climb during the civil rights movement was the Nation of Islam, the most influential and directional group in the history of Black America. The history of the Black American begins not in America, but in the Black Mans native continent; Africa. Some four hundred years ago the first Black Man was kidnapped from his home and forced onto a ship taking him to the unknown wilderness of North America. The first Black and the many that followed were to serve one purpose; the white mans slave. Here in North America the Black Man was to pick the white mans cotton, and tend to his every need. Slavery continued up until January 1st, 1863 with the announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation. The end of slavery was not the end of oppression, for another one hundred years the Black Man was forbidden to drink from the same fountain or even be educated in the same building as his white counterpart. These implications were due to Americas vicious segregation laws. Any Black man who chose not to comply with the rules of the South could expect harsh consequences, the worst of all being lynching. Elijah Muhammad often recalled hi! s experience with lynching to crowds. Young Elijah had come upon a group of white men trailing a Black man at the end of a rope ... they kicked and insulted him unceasingly ... when they reached a sturdy tree, one of the men untied the rope from the Black mans wrists and threw it over a branch. He formed the other end into a noose and slipped it around the Black mans neck ... the group then hoisted the victim ... from the ground. After the lynchers were sure the man was dead...

Hildegard of Bingen, Mystic, Writer, Composer, Saint

Hildegard of Bingen, Mystic, Writer, Composer, Saint Hildegard of Bingen (1098–September 17, 1179) was a medieval mystic and visionary and Abbess of Bingens Benedictine community. She was also a prolific composer and the author of several books on spirituality, visions, medicine, health and nutrition, nature. A powerful figure within the church, she corresponded with Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine and other major political figures of the time. She was made a saint of the Church of England and was later canonized by the Catholic Church. Fast Facts: Hildegard of Bingen Known For: German mystic, religious leader, and saintAlso Known As: Saint Hildegard, Sibyl  of the  RhineBorn: 1098 in  Bermersheim vor der Hà ¶he, GermanyParents: Mechtild of Merxheim-Nahet,  Hildebert of BermersheimDied: September 17, 1179 in  Bingen am Rhein, GermanyEducation: Privately educated in at the  Benedictine  cloister of Disibodenberg by Jutta, a sister of the count of SpanheimPublished Works:  Symphonia armonie celestium revelationum, Physica, Causae et Curae, Scivias, Liber Vitae Meritorum, (Book of the Life of Merits), Liber Divinorum Operum (Book of the Divine Works)Awards and Honors:  Canonized in 2012 by Pope Benedict XVI; proclaimed a doctor of the church in the same yearNotable Quote: Woman may be made from man, but no man can be made without a woman. Hildegard of Bingen Biography Born in Bemersheim (Bà ¶ckelheim), West Franconia (now Germany), in 1098, Hildegard of Bingen was the 10th child of a well-to-do family. Shed had visions connected with illness (perhaps migraines) from a young age, and in 1106 her parents sent her to a 400-year-old Benedictine monastery that had only recently added a section for women. They put her under the care of a noblewoman and resident there named Jutta, calling Hildegard the familys tithe to God. Jutta, whom Hildegard later referred to as an unlearned woman, taught Hildegard to read and write. Jutta became the abbess of the convent, which attracted other young women of noble background. In that time, convents were often places of learning, a welcome home to women who had intellectual gifts. Hildegard, as was true of many other women in convents at the time, learned Latin, read the scriptures, and had access to many other books of religious and philosophical nature. Those who have traced the influence of ideas in her writings find that Hildegard must have read quite extensively. Part of the Benedictine rule required study, and Hildegard clearly availed herself of the opportunities. Founding a New, Female House When Jutta died in 1136, Hildegard was elected unanimously as the new abbess. Rather than continue as part of a double house- a monastery with units for men and for women- Hildegard in 1148 decided to move the convent to Rupertsberg, where it was on its own and not directly under the supervision of a male house. This gave Hildegard considerable freedom as an administrator, and she traveled frequently in Germany and France. She claimed that she was following Gods order in making the move, firmly opposing her abbots opposition. She assumed a rigid position, lying like a rock until he gave his permission for the move. The move was completed in 1150. The Rupertsberg convent grew to as many as 50 women and became a popular burial site for the wealthy of the area. The women who joined the convent were of wealthy backgrounds, and the convent did not discourage them from maintaining something of their lifestyle. Hildegard of Bingen withstood criticism of this practice, claiming that wearing jewelry to worship God was honoring God, not practicing selfishness. She later also founded a daughter house in Eibingen. This community is still in existence. Hildegards Work and Visions Part of the Benedictine rule is labor, and Hildegard spent early years in nursing and at Rupertsberg in illustrating (illuminating) manuscripts. She hid her early visions; only after she was elected abbess did she receive a vision that she said clarified her knowledge of the psaltery...the evangelists and the volumes of the Old and New Testament. Still showing much self-doubt, she began to write and share her visions. Papal Politics Hildegard of Bingen lived at a time when, within the Benedictine movement, there were stresses on the inner experience, personal meditation, an immediate relationship with God, and visions. It was also a time in Germany of striving between papal authority and the authority of the German (Holy Roman) emperor and by a papal schism. Hildegard of Bingen, through her many letters, took to task both the German Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and the archbishop of Main. She wrote to such luminaries as King Henry II of England and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine. She also corresponded with many individuals of low and high estate who wanted her advice or prayers. Hildegards Favorite Richardis or Ricardis von Stade, one of the convents nuns who was a personal assistant to Hildegard of Bingen, was a special favorite of Hildegard. Richardis brother was an archbishop, and he arranged for his sister to head another convent. Hildegard tried to persuade Richardis to stay and wrote insulting letters to the brother and even wrote to the pope, hoping to stop the move. But Richardis left and died after she decided to return to Rupertsberg but before she could do so. Preaching Tour In her 60s, Hildegard of Bingen began the first of four preaching tours, speaking mostly in other communities of Benedictines such as her own and other monastic groups, but also sometimes speaking in public settings. Hildegard Defies Authority A final famous incident happened near the end of Hildegards life when she was in her 80s. She allowed a nobleman who had been excommunicated to be buried at the convent, seeing that he had last rites. She claimed shed received word from God allowing the burial. But her ecclesiastical superiors intervened and ordered the body exhumed. Hildegard defied the authorities by hiding the grave, and the authorities excommunicated the entire convent community. Most insultingly to Hildegard, the interdict prohibited the community from singing. She complied with the interdict, avoiding singing and communion, but did not comply with the command to exhume the corpse. Hildegard appealed the decision to yet higher church authorities and finally had the interdict lifted. Hildegard of Bingen Writings The best-known writing of Hildegard of Bingen is a trilogy (1141–1152) including Scivias, Liber Vitae Meritorum, (Book of the Life of Merits), and Liber Divinorum Operum (Book of the Divine Works). These include records of her visions- many are apocalyptic- and her explanations of scripture and salvation history. She also wrote plays, poetry, and music, and many of her hymns and song cycles are recorded today. She even wrote on medicine and nature- and its important to note that for Hildegard of Bingen, as for many in medieval times, theology, medicine, music, and similar topics were united, not separate spheres of knowledge. Was Hildegard a Feminist? Today, Hildegard of Bingen is celebrated as a feminist. This has to be interpreted within the context of her times. On the one hand, she accepted many of the assumptions of the time about the inferiority of women. She called herself a paupercula feminea forma or poor weak woman, and implied that the current feminine age was thereby a less-desireable age. That God depended on women to bring his message was a sign of the chaotic times, not a sign of the advance of women. On the other hand, she exercised considerably more authority than most women of her time in practice, and she celebrated feminine community and beauty in her spiritual writings. She used the metaphor of marriage to God, though this was not her invention nor a new metaphor- and it was not universal. Her visions have female figures in them: Ecclesia, Caritas (heavenly love), Sapientia, and others. In her texts on medicine, she included topics that male writers usually avoided, such as how to deal with menstrual cramps. She also wrote a text just on what is today called gynecology. Clearly, she was a more prolific writer than most women of her era; more to the point, she was more prolific than most of the men of the time. There were some suspicions that her writing was not her own and could instead be attributed to her scribe Volman, who seems to have taken the writings that she put down and made permanent records of them. But even in her writing after he died, her usual fluency and complexity of writing is present, which would be counterevidence to the theory of his authorship. Sainthood Perhaps because of her famous (or infamous) flouting of ecclesiastical authority, Hildegard of Bingen was not initially canonized by the Roman Catholic Church as a saint, although she was honored locally as a saint. The Church of England considered her a saint. On May 10, 2012, Pope Benedict XVI officially declared her a saint of the Roman Catholic Church. Later that year on October 7, he named her a Doctor of the Church (meaning her teachings are recommended doctrine). She was the fourth woman to be so honored, after Teresa of Avila, Catherine of Siena, and Tà ©rà ¨se of Lisieux. Death Hildegard of Bingen died  on September 17, 1179, at age 82. Her feast day is September 17. Legacy Hildegard of Bingen was, by modern standards, not as revolutionary as she might have been considered in her time. She preached the superiority of order over change, and the church reforms she pushed for included the superiority of ecclesiastical power over secular power, and of popes over kings. She opposed the Cathar heresy in France and had a long-running rivalry (expressed in letters) with another figure whose influence was unusual for a woman, Elisabeth of Shonau. Hildegard of Bingen is probably more properly classified as a prophetic visionary rather than a mystic, as revealing knowledge from God was more her priority than her own personal experience or union with God. Her apocalyptic visions of the consequences of acts and practices, her lack of concern for herself, and her sense that she was the instrument of Gods word to others differentiate her from many of the female and male mystics near her time. Her music is performed today and her spiritual works are read as examples of a feminine interpretation of church and spiritual ideas. Sources â€Å"A Contemporary Look at Hildegard of Bingen.†Ã‚  Healthy Hildegard, 21 Feb. 2019.The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. â€Å"St. Hildegard.†Ã‚  Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, 1 Jan. 2019.Franciscan Media. â€Å"Saint Hildegard of Bingen.†Ã‚  Franciscan Media, 27 Dec. 2018.

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