The History and Domestication of Cassava

The History and Domestication of Cassava Cassava (Manihot esculenta), also known as manioc, tapioca, yuca, and mandioca, is a domesticated species of tuber, a root crop originally domesticated perhaps as long ago as 8,000–10,000 years ago, in southern Brazil and eastern Bolivia along the southwestern border of the Amazon basin. Cassava is today a primary calorie source in tropical regions around the world, and the sixth most important crop plant worldwide. Fast Facts: Cassava Domestication Cassava, commonly called manioc or tapioca, is a domesticated species of tuber, and the sixth most important food crop in the world.  It was domesticated in the southwestern Amazon of Brazil and Bolivia some 8,000-10,000 years ago.  Domesticate improvements include traits which must have been added by means of clonal propagation.  Burned tubers of manioc were discovered at the classic Maya site of Ceren, dated to 600 CE.   Cassava Progenitors The progenitor of cassava (M. esculenta ssp. flabellifolia) exists today and is adapted to forest and savanna ecotones. The process of domestication improved the size and production level of its tubers, and increased the photosynthesis rate and seed functionality, by using repeated cycles of clonal propagation- wild manioc cannot be reproduced by stem cuttings. Archaeological macro-botanical evidence of cassava in the little-investigated Amazon basin has not been identified, partly because root crops do not preserve well. Identification of the Amazon as the point of origin was based on genetic studies of cultivated cassava and all various possible progenitors, and the Amazonian M. esculenta ssp. flabellifolia was determined to be the wild form of todays cassava plant. Amazon Evidence: The Teotonio Site The oldest archaeological evidence for manioc domestication is from starches and pollen grains from sites outside the Amazon.  In 2018, archaeologist Jennifer Watling and colleagues reported the presence of manioc phytoliths attached to stone tools at the southwestern Amazon Teotonio site in Brazil very near the Bolivian border. The phytoliths were found in a level of dark earth (terra preta) dated to 6,000 calendar years ago (cal BP), 3,500 years older than any terra preta anywhere else in the Amazon to date. The manioc at Teotonio was found alongside domesticated squash (Cucurbita sp), beans (Phaseolus), and guava (Psidium), indicating that the inhabitants were early horticulturalists in what is becoming recognized as an Amazonian center of domestication. Cassava Species Around the World Cassava (Manihot esculenta), root and ground for dinner.   Rodrigo Ruiz Ciancia / Moment / Getty Images Cassava starches have been identified in north-central Colombia by approximately 7,500 years ago, and in Panama at Aguadulce Shelter, about 6,900 years ago. Pollen grains from cultivated cassava have been found in archaeological sites in Belize and Mexicos Gulf coast by 5,800–4,500 bp, and in Puerto Rico between 3,300 and 2,900 years ago. Thus, scholars can safely say that the domestication in the Amazon had to happen before 7,500 years ago. There are numerous cassava and manioc species in the world today, and researchers still struggle with their differentiation, but recent research supports the notion that they are all descended from a single domestication event in the Amazon basin. Domestic manioc has larger and more roots and increased tannin content in the leaves. Traditionally, manioc is grown in the field-and-fallow cycles of slash and burn agriculture, where its flowers are pollinated by insects and its seeds dispersed by ants. Manioc and the Maya The Pompeii of North America, Joya de Ceren, was buried in a volcanic eruption in August 595 CE. Ed Nellis Members of the Maya civilization cultivated the root crop and it may have been a staple in some parts of the Maya world. Manioc pollen has been discovered in the Maya region by the late Archaic period, and most of the Maya groups studied in the 20th century were found to cultivate manioc in their fields. The excavations at Ceren, a classic period Maya village that was destroyed (and preserved) by a volcanic eruption, identified manioc plants within the kitchen gardens. Manioc planting beds were discovered some 550 feet (170 meters) away from the village. The manioc beds at Ceren date to approximately 600 CE. They consist of ridged fields, with the tubers planted on the top of the ridges and water allowed to drain and flow through the wales between the ridges (called calles). Archaeologists discovered five manioc tubers in the field which had been missed during harvesting. Stalks of manioc bushes had been cut into 3–5 foot (1–1.5 meter) lengths and buried horizontally in the beds shortly before the eruption: these represent preparation for the next crop. The eruption occurred in August of 595 CE, burying the field in nearly 10 ft (3 m) of volcanic ash. Sources Brown, Cecil H., et al. The Paleobiolinguistics of Domesticated Manioc (Manihot esculenta). Ethnobiology Letters 4 (2013): 61–70. Print.Clement, Charles R., et al. The Domestication of Amazonia before European Conquest. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 282.1812 (2015): 20150813. Print.De Matos Viegas, Susana. Pleasures That Differentiate: Transformational Bodies among the Tupinamb of Olivenà §a (Atlantic Coast, Brazil). Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 18.3 (2012): 536–53. Print.Fraser, James, et al. Crop Diversity on Anthropogenic Dark Earths in Central Amazonia. Human Ecology 39.4 (2011): 395–406. Print.Isendahl, Christian. The Domestication and Early Spread of Manioc ( Manihot Esculenta Crantz): A Brief Synthesis. Latin American Antiquity 22.4 (2011): 452–68. Print.Kawa, Nicholas C., Christopher McCarty, and Charles R. Clement. Manioc Varietal Diversity, Social Networks, and Distribution Constraints in Rural Amazoni a. Current Anthropology 54.6 (2013): 764–70. Print. Sheets, Payson, et al. Manioc Cultivation at Ceren, El Salvador: Occasional Kitchen Garden Plant or Staple Crop? Ancient Mesoamerica 22.01 (2011): 1–11. Print.Watling, Jennifer, et al. Direct Archaeological Evidence for Southwestern Amazonia as an Early Plant Domestication and Food Production Centre. PLOS ONE 13.7 (2018): e0199868. Print.

Response Memo Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Response Memo - Case Study Example However, the governors are full time employed in the Corporate secretary. The C.E.O is the senior most corporative Officer in the organization. Generally, he is in charge of managing organizational activities. In this organization, the C.E.O reports directly to the board of Governors (p.33). Additionally, he is charged with the responsibility of maximizing the entity value. He is also the director and the lead decision maker in the organization. On the other hand, he is represents the organization in the outside world. The Chief Finance Officer also a corporate officer directly reports under the C.E.O. His main responsibility in the organization is managing the organization’s financial risks. Additionally, he is responsible for record-keeping and financial planning. Alternatively, he deals with financial reporting especially to higher management. As a chief Operating Officer, I have different responsibilities for my organization and I ensure that I carry out these tasks to the maximum ability so that to have quality output and consequently increase the profit margin for the organization. ID Security develops software used by different organizations and I always make sure that the people operating subordinate to me understand the importance of carrying out their responsibilities effectively to the pleasure of our clients. The advance system that the organization with ensures that the clients not only receive the various biometric systems that we manufacture, but also ensure that we carry out follow up procedures and installations to ensure the effective working of these systems. It is critical to go through the responsibilities of my subordinates for it allows for the understanding of their operations, review their character and abilities and also advise on the best manners through which they can improve in their roles. Salary and the compensation package is however much lower as compared to the C.E.O and the C.O.O. Averagely, a yearly salary stands at

Community Foundations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Community Foundations - Essay Example The ACF acts as a connection between donors, and the charitable money from the donors helps to improve the lives of all of the people living in Central Texas. The Foundation is a non-profit organization that provides positions for over two hundred individual charitable funds. The Austin Community Foundation handles over five hundred charitable funds that have been established by non-profit agencies, individual donors, and corporations. Some of these charitable funds include scholarship funds, special project funds, and donor designated funds. The task of the ACF is to help the funds back into the community to help in the supporting of charitable efforts, such as scholarships and grants. These grants support animal-related services, recreation, education, arts and culture, the environment, and health, among others. Some of the projects that the Austin Community Foundation sees to vary in the type of fund that is it, and the fund, or project, itself. Unrestricted funds help the most pressing of needs of the community, allowing the Board of Governors to decide on the recipients. Some of these funds include, but are not limited to, the Austin Community Foundation Fund, the Emily Lake Fund, and Gatewood Newberry Endowment Fund. Donor advised funds are made through the consultation of the donor, which will benefit charitable organizations. Some of these funds are The Austin High School Endowment Fund, Austin Playhouse Endowment Fund, and the Charity Partners of Austin Fund. Donor designated funds benefit the specific organization or fields of interest – a few of these funds include A.I.S.D. Redesigning High Schools Fund, Jeanne Deason Fund for the Salvation Army, and the Sidney Burleson Smith Red Cross Fund. Non-profit endowments are non-profit organizations that provide permanent structure and professional investment

ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS, CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT Essay

ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS, CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT - Essay Example shing selected aims.† For Henry Fayol â€Å"To Manage is to forecast, to plan, to organize, to command, to co-ordinate and to control† (Robbins, Bergman, Stagg & Coulter 2012). These are the major functions performed by any manager in any organization although the functions differ depending on the size of the organization. To perform these functions, managers do need to have power and authority in order to elicit compliance and commitment from the employees. However, with all the resources in the world, an organization cannot achieve its goals if it is not accompanied by effective management especially in modern times when management has become so complex and demanding owing to globalization. Effective management in this case, depends on how well the managers exercise their power and authority over subordinates. In this essay, I will argue that management is both an art and a science which requires effective exercise of power to elicit compliance and commitment. I will argue that it is an art in the sense that it has its own creative skills, tools and techniques. It also requires intelligence, innovation, an individual approach, discipline and dedication as well as practicability. It is a science in that it utilizes empirically tested principles and draws heavily from social sciences such as economics, sociology and psychology. To be successful in the management field, management cannot be reduced to either an art or science but should be taken as both an art and a science. Managers in the organization exercise various types of power in an effort to influence the followers so that they can be committed and engaged to their work hence improved performance and success for the organization. Koontz and Weihrich define power as â€Å"the ability of individuals or groups to induce or influence the beliefs or actions of other persons or groups (2008: 179). Influence in this case according to Silos (2003) is the ability to make the followers strive towards a common

Children Are Our Future

Children Are Our Future Our greatest glory consist in not ever failing, but in rising every time we fall. (Oliver Godsmith) The children of todays society will never know the true meaning of this quote or what its like to fall and get right back up to try again. Many say if you dont award your children for participating, theyll choose not to participate and wont get anything done. As a parent its hard to see your child fail considering you want nothing less than the best and to see them happy, but they should not be entitled to a trophy just for showing up and going through the motions. The millennials have been called everything from coddled to just downright spoiled. Their overal attitude is horrible, always thinking they know whats best and whatever they do will be accepted and rewarded. This, however, is through no fault of the child but of the parents and caregivers that raised them. A writer from the Amrican Academy of Pediatrics states, From Californias soccer fields to the basketball courts of New York, sports-league organizers are beginning to question the practice of congratulating every kid on every team just for putting on a uniform. This just shows that people can see what participation trophies do to children. By giving them an award for participating and going through the motions will kill their entire motivation and want to do better. With these participation trophies they will fail and not kow how to handle it. With participation trophins theyll never learn to fail, without failure theyll nver learn to succeed. Just as eveyone says, the children are our future. If we continue to hand out awards for participatinon, theyll never learn and give up as soon as they are unable to complete a task. Technology doent make anything better as they get frustrated if something doesnt pop up as fast as they would like. The millennial generation is electroniclly sophisticated as Julie A. Ray from the Association for Childhood Education International states. With as many technological advancements as ther are in the world today, very few people have patience and its getting worse as time goes on. Having no patience is also a factor in weather anyone will continue to fail and succeed or just fail and never try again and expect a reward for onece again, going through the motions. You will never learn to do things to the best of your ability if you dont ever fail. Part of being human is learning to accept the fact that you will fail, weather it be one, three, ten, or even a hundred times before you succeed, you will fail. Michael Jordan, a retired professional basketball player and well reapected rolemodel, says, Ive missed more than 9,000 shots in my career. Ive lost almost 300 games. 26 times, Ive been trusted to take the game winning shot and missed. Ive failed over and over and over again in my life. And that is why I succeed. Jordan was not handed a trophy for missing 26 game winning shots, he was awarded a trophy for working hard and failing. Even though he failed he never gave up. He pushed and pushed and worked everyday until he was succesful, until he was able to make those game winning shots that everyone was depending on him for. When were not feeling overwhelmed, one highly sensitive person (HSP) told a reporter for a California newspaper, we can experience joy and love much more deeply than the nonHSP. (Christine Rosen) Raising children on paticipatin trophies will give them a higher risk of becoming a HSP. They wont know how to handle the conditions of life as it can be fast paced. In the real world, there is no one to hold your hand or tell you what to do and how to do it. You have to learn from your mistakes as well as everyone elses. If you are awarded a trophy for showing up and just being there and participating, you wont learn how to make a mistake and if we continue to hand out trophies like its candy, no one else will learn to make mistakes either. Once you are an adult and youre out on your own and you make a mistake and you fail, youll think that its all going to be okay, someone will come and fix it, once you realize no one is there to fix it and no one is going to be there to tell you its okay, youre going to feel like a failure, something that youve never felt before because for your entire life, everything has been handed to you. Handing out trophies like its going out of style is a big mistake. Children are our future, raising them on participation trophies will improve nothing, do nothing but destroy children and their future. As soon as they fail and realize that its not okay, they will no longer be confident in themselves or in anything that they do. Part of success is confidence in failure, knowing that you will succeed if you just try again , even if you fail more than youd like to admit. You will never get anywhere if you never try.

Five-Finger Discount Essay -- Shoplifting Stealing Security Retail Ess

Five-Finger Discount Every day, prices of products that we need continue to go up and up. Simple things like bread and tea go up for reasons that at first seem unknown. These High prices make it hard for many families to make ends meet. At the root of this problem there are many factors like inflation, over priced mark-up, and quantity of the product. But the one thing that should not lead to higher prices is shoplifting. Shoplifting is a plague that is sweeping this nation. Because shoplifting has become such a problem, stores are forced to raise prices to make up for lost sales. This is not their fault, however, few people put the blame where it belongs. The thieves that plague our economy are to blame and the stores have every right to try to stop these people at all costs. Many stores have gone to great lengths to stop shoplifters. Many install cameras to watch the store. That is what the black bubbles are on the ceiling in some of your favorite stores like Wal- mart and Biggs. They are continuously monitoring you and everything that you do. This is an attempt to watch people as they shop, in hopes that someone will be stupid enough to shoplift in front of a camera. There are many problems with cameras. For one thing there is always a blind spot in the system. A blind spot is an area in the security system that is not constantly being observed. This term usually refers to an area where the security camera can’t see. Big stores like Meijer and Wal-mart don’t ev...

Personality psychology Essay

Abstract Carl Gustav Jung has influenced many facets of modern psychology and counseling with his unique spiritual approach to personality theory. Herein lies a biographical address of Jung’s life, a comprehensive overview of the principle tenets of his personality theories, and a Christian evaluation of his work. Specific attention is given to comparing and contrasting Jung’s theory of a collective unconscious with a Christian’s understanding of the spiritual world. In addition, a guide is provided to Christians looking to mine Jung’s work for techniques that might help their clients, while at the same time avoiding others that cannot coincide with orthodox Christian beliefs. EVALUATING JUNG FROM A CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE Evaluating Jung From A Christian Perspective Carl Jung lived a very interesting life, and has provided the fields of psychology and counseling with valuable perspective and insight. A modern Christian psychologist or counselor would do well to mine Jung’s theories for useful application today. The difficulty is found in moving past Jung’s cloud of mysticism and properly applying orthodox Christian beliefs to Jung’s work. The Life Story of Jung Boyhood Carl Gustav Jung was born in 1875 in Kessnil, Switzerland (Jung, 1989). It is quite telling that very early in Jung’s autobiography he describes how he came to his understanding of Jesus as a boy. Jung (1989) described how the natural dangers around his home led to untimely deaths, how his father presided over these funerals, and how Jung lost trust in Jesus because Jesus allowed or caused these people to die. He admits, â€Å"In later years and until my confirmation, I made every effort to force myself to take the required positive attitude to Christ. But I could never succeed in overcoming my secret distrust† (Jung, 1989, pp. 13-14). Jung wrote his autobiography while he was in his eighties and only a few years before he died. Either Jung was a little boy particularly sensitive to his faith, or as an old man he superimposed some of his mature hostility to Christianity onto his memories of early life. Either way, it seems Jung would admit that he was never a Christian. Another strange phenomenon in Jung’s early life was a strange experience he described as occurring while he was around eight or nine years old and playing on a favorite rock he had: Often, when I was along, I saw down on this stone, and then began an imaginary game that went something like this: â€Å"I am sitting on top of this stone and it is underneath. † But the stone also could say â€Å"I† and think: â€Å"I am lying here on this slope and he is sitting on top of me. † The question then arose: â€Å"Am I the one who is sitting on the stone, or am I the stone on which he is sitting? † (Jung, 1989, p. 20) It is possible to dismiss this event as a child’s whimsy and miss the significant dissociative quality that affected Jung. As if Jung anticipated this, he follows this memory with another even more emphatic. He carved a two-inch long manikin out of his school ruler, dressed it, made a stone for it, and secretly hid it in his attic (Jung, 1989). His thoughts show how divided and anxious his personality had become. â€Å"No one could discover my secret and destroy it. I felt safe, and the tormenting sense of being at odds with myself was gone† (Jung, 1989, p.21). This introspective dialogue confirms Jung struggled with a personality disorder himself. Young Adulthood and Parents Not surprisingly, these two themes of distrust toward Christianity and an increasingly manifest disorder continued into Jung’s formative years. â€Å"As a school boy, Jung began to experience himself and be convinced that he was both the child he objectively seemed to be and also an authoritative wise old man who had lived in the eighteenth century† (Sollod, Wilson, & Monte, 2009, p. 157). According to Sollod et al. (2009) while trying to understand himself, Jung also struggled with understanding his parents and his home life. Jung’s father was a pastor of the Swiss Reformed Church who struggled with his own faith, and his mother seemed to possess two personalities. Sometimes she was a sweet mother and wife, and at other times she was a â€Å"witch, prophetess, and seeress who communicated with spirits† (Sollod et al. , 2009, p. 157). The two themes most obvious in young Jung are the same two themes that dominated the lives of his parents. EVALUATING JUNG FROM A CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE Adulthood. Later, Jung (1989) proved to be a good student and was considering a career as a medical man when he was strongly influenced by paranormal events in his house. Curious, he began to attend seances with his family and included these events in his doctoral thesis. After finishing that, Jung (1989) says, â€Å"On December 10, 1900, I took up my post as assistant at Burgholzi Mental Hospital, Zurich† (p. 111). It was there Jung became interested in the mentally ill and Freud’s work. Freud and Jung became close, and Jung learned much from Freud. However, a bitterness developed between them and they began to break apart. Sollod et al. explains: By 1913, the break with Freud and the Freudians had become permanent. As we have seen, this period also signaled Jung’s development of the most distinctive aspects of his own theorizing and his own personal voyage into the depths of what he termed the â€Å"collective unconscious. † (2009, p. 159) From this association and then public break with Freud, Jung and his ideas began to gain in popularity. He began to develop many independent theories in addition to the collective unconscious, but the basis of his personality theories remain rooted in Freudian thought. Still, most of Jung’s theories were inspired from his own personal, spiritual experiences (Boa, 2004, p. 97). Jung’s Theories The Collective Unconscious It is good to begin discussing Jung’s theories in relation to his break with Freud. We can draw from our understanding of Freud the concepts of psycho-sexual unconscious drives, repression, and the id, ego, and superego to gain an understanding of where Jung began. Jung looked deeper into the concept of the unconscious and found a collective element there: If we analyze the persona we remove the mask and discover that what appeared to be an individual is at bottom collective. We thus trace â€Å"the Little God of the World† back to his origin, that is, to a personification of the collective psyche. Finally, to our astonishment, we realize that the persona was only the mask of the collective psyche. Whether we follow Freud and reduce the primary impulse to sexuality, or Adler and reduce it to the elementary desire for power, or reduce it to the general principle of the collective psyche which contains the principles of both Freud and Adler, we arrive at the same result: namely, the dissolution of the personal into the collective. (Jung, 2008, p.38) Jung believed this collective unconscious was a natural result of the evolutionary process in humans, and therefore â€Å"is morally and aesthetically neutral and should not be regarded as an enemy to be avoided† (Boa, 2004, p. 97). Christian Response To The Collective Unconscious Jung’s collective unconscious might excite the Christian who is thinking of the biblical descriptions of angels, demons, heaven, hell, and the entire spiritual world. Is Jung tapping into a part of all of us that comprehends these spiritual things? Both the Christian’s understanding of the spiritual world and Jung’s collective unconscious are unseen. And both views believe all humanity participates or will participate in their unseen world. However, Jung’s view is specifically amoral, whereas Scripture describes God’s revealed morality for humans in the material world and angels and demons in the spirit world (2 Pet 2:410 NASB). For the collective unconscious to encompass all the Christian understands about the spiritual world, it would have to be under God’s authority and therefore moral. A Christian understands God as eternal, omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent, and thus God would have sovereignty over the collective unconscious if it did exist. In addition, a Christian’s understanding of the spirit world is that it exists as a real space even though it cannot be seen. A Christian believes this spirit world cannot be entered by a human voluntarily. These two beliefs are antithetical to Jung’s understanding of the collective unconscious. Not only does Jung claim to have voluntarily entered the collective unconscious, but much of his later work is based on his return from this place including a mysterious little red book. His writings in that red book were very different from most of his professional work: Instead, the book was a kind of phantasmagoric morality play, driven by Jung’s own wish not just to chart a course out of the mangrove swamp of his inner world but also to take some of its riches with him. It was this last part – the idea that a person might move beneficially between the poles of the rational and irrational, the light and the dark, the conscious and the unconscious – that provided the germ for his later work and for what analytical psychology would become. (Corbett, 2009,  ¶ 16). The orthodox Christian is forced to conclude that Jung’s theory of a collective unconscious has no bearing on the reality of the spiritual world. Archetypes Jung, however, believed in the reality of the collective unconscious and devoted much of his life to its experience and study. From this work came his understanding of archetypes. He defined archetypes loosely as primal images and experiences shared in humanity’s unconscious world (Sollod et al. , 2009, pp. 161-162). These archetypes include names such as the Mother, the Trickster, the Shadow, the Hero, the Anima, and the Animus. Freud believed archetypes on the unconscious side and instincts on the conscious side combined to drive a human (Boa, 2004, p. 159). Or, put another way, Daryl Sharp (2001) explains an archetype is â€Å"†¦ a universal tendency to form certain ideas and images and to behave in certain ways. Instincts are the physiological counterparts of archetypes† (p. 14). The general and inclusive nature of the collective unconscious and archetypes made Jung popular among secular and religious spiritualists. Here was a theory they could united behind and put its tenets to work in a practical psychology. Christian Response To The Archetypes Jung easily used the idea of archetypes to interact with Christianity. All of the major historical figures and many icons associated with Christianity can all be explained through archetypes. However at its core Jung’s creation of archetypes is not compatible with Christianity as Boa (2004) explains: Disagreement exists among theologians as to whether Jung’s system repudiates or is compatible with Christianity, some arguing that it undermines biblical authority, and others claiming that it illuminates and enhances the Christian message. However, the psychological interpretation of Christianity in works like Symbols of Transformation and Answer to Job denounces the scriptural portrait of Yahweh and Christ and rejects traditional Christianity as inadequate for modern culture. (p. 101) The orthodox Christian must not reduce God to the status of one archetype among many, and is encouraged to view the historical figures mentioned in the Bible as literal. One may also study Jung further to read of his aversion to orthodox Christianity more clearly. Word Association Test. Whereas Freud relied on hypnosis and forcing a subject to concentrate to draw out unconscious tangles in a person, Jung developed a word association test. Jung would provide the subject with a card with a stimulus word written on it, would ask the subject to respond to the word, and would record reaction times. This method was very successful in identifying unconscious problems. Jung would later improve on this technique to measure more physical responses from the subject (Sollod et al. , 2009, p. 148). Christian Response To The Word Association Test. Jung’s word association test would be improved on and expanded to the many different versions of psychological tests we see today. This method, and methods like it, are useful in determining where a client might need to focus or might be hurting and not realize it. This test would be particularly useful with children or with clients who are unaware of the nature of their psychological baggage. Unlike the incompatable differences associated with the collective unconscious and archetypes theories, the word association test is a useful tool that any Christian should consider. The Introvert and the Extrovert. Jung also developed a model for understanding personality types by observing the differences between Freud and Adler. Jung believed there was a continuum between introversion and extroversion and that everyone fell on a different place on that continuum. Jung also broke those two general types into more specific types, and used this model to fit personalities into categories (Sollod et al. , 2009, pp. 166-171). Later Hans Eysenck, influenced by behaviorist and cognitive schools of thought regarding personality theory, expanded on Jung’s ideas of introversion and extroversion. He performed tests that partially confirmed the basis of Jung’s descriptions, and then described how the ideas Jung postulated had been around since the times of ancient Greece. Nevertheless, Eysenck’s evaluation and expansion of Jung’s work has led to an understanding of personality types that is useful today Sollod et al. , 2009, pp. 501-506). In addition, â€Å"Web sites based on the dimensions Jung outlined have proliferated, and one can find a number of well-researched tests of Jungian types. Foremost among these are the Myers-Briggs test and the Kiersey temperament survey† (Sollod et al. , 2009, p. 170). Christian Response To The Introvert and Extrovert Types Similar to the word association test, Jung’s formulation and the subsequent development of personalty type theories based on introversion and extroversion are helpful diagnostic tools. While observing the view that a human does not completely fit into a single personality type, and humans’ personalities change, these tools should be utilized in a modern psychology or counseling setting in addition to usual methods. A Christian can counsel another Christian with scripture in truth and love while better understanding that client in terms of their general personality bent. Summary There is no doubt that Carl Gustav Jung lived a troubled life and regularly interacted with the occult. Were he alive today, it’s likely the fields of psychology and counseling would treat him more as a patient than a contributor. Nevertheless, his ideas and views help shape each of those fields and influenced many others who also helped shape those fields. A Christian would do well to mine Jung’s life and work through a filer of orthodox belief. Even though Jung was a nonbeliever, a troubled man, and was hostile to orthodox Christianity, his unique insights are still useful in doing God’s will in today’s world. After studying Jung, a counselor is better equipped to help people. References Boa, K. (2004). Augustine to Freud: What theologians & psychologists tell us about human nature and why it matters. Nashville, TN: B&H Publishing Group. Corbett, S. (2009, September 16). The Holy Grail of the Unconscious. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www. nytimes. com Jung, C. (2008). The Conception of the Unconscious. In M. W. Schustack & H. S. Friedman (Eds. ), The Personality Reader, (2nd ed. , pp. 36-40). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Jung, C. (1989). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. New York: Vintage Books. Sharp, D. (2001). Digesting Jung: Food for the journey. Toronto, ON: Inner City Books. Sollod, R. N. , Wilson J. P. , & Monte C. F. (2009). Beneath The Mask? : An introduction to theories of personality (8th ed. ). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.